• Pacific Northwest: There are several volcanoes in the Pacific Northwest, including Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainier and Mount Hood. Volcanic eruptions can impact local weather. Eruptions emit particles and gases into the atmosphere, creating a haze. This haze can remain in the air for years, reflecting the sun’s rays and reducing temperatures at the Earth’s surface.

  (Image right: Aerial view of Mount St. Helens. NASA Earth Observatory)

• Western US: The Sierra Nevada Mountains that run north-south through California basically separate the Western United States into a wetter (west) side and a drier (east) side. Storms come off the Pacific Ocean from the west and get lifted up by the Sierra Nevada Mountains – a process called orographic lifting. As these storms rise, they cool and condense, raining a lot of water back onto the ground.

  But, as the storms continue to make their way over the top of the mountains to the east, they don’t dump as much rain because they have already lost a lot of moisture. This causes a rain shadow to form on the east side of the mountain range where there is a low amount of rainfall. The rain shadow from the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains impacts the weather in the Great Basin, which covers most of Nevada and parts of Utah.

  (Image right: Rain shadow formation. Wikimedia Commons)

• Great Lakes: The Great Lakes region is known for its lake effect snow. As cold air passes over the Lakes, warmer lake water below evaporates and heats the bottom layer of cold air.  Warm, moist air rises and cools, causing condensation and cloud formation. If humidity is high enough and temperatures are cold enough, snow falls.  Winds push these clouds over land, where increased friction slows the winds, leading to more snowfall accumulation.  As winds move farther inland and encounter hills, rising air cools even more, creating even more snow!

  (Image right: Lake effect snow over the Great Lakes. NASA Earth Observatory)

• Great Plains: The Great Plains may be known as Tornado Alley, but their topography allows for another weather phenomena – blizzards! The Rocky Mountains to the west are the driving force for blizzards in the Great Plains.  A cold polar air mass that moves off the Rockies pushes southward accompanied by high winds, intense cold and considerable amounts of snow that can last for several days.

  (Image right: Blizzard conditions over the Great Plains. NASA Earth Observatory)

• South Central US: Droughts are periods of unusually dry weather that the South Central United States experiences at times – including right now.  Droughts can bring upon dust storms, which are common in arid and semi-arid regions.  A dust storm occurs when a gust of wind blows loose sand or dust particles off the ground, breaks down the particles and keeps them suspended in the air.  Dust storms can spread over hundreds of miles and well over 10,000 feet into the air.

  (Image right: Dust storm in Phoenix, 2011. NOAA National Weather Service)




• Eastern US: One geographic feature that affects the entire East Coast is the Atlantic Ocean.  The ocean plays a big role in determining the temperatures near the coast.  During  fall and winter when the ocean is warmer than the land, the coastal regions experience warmer temperatures than inland areas.  In the springtime, ocean breezes keep temperatures along the coast cooler than inland areas.

  (Image right: Sea breeze diagram. Wikimedia Commons: Jesús Gómez Fernández)

Learn more about Geography Awareness Week: www.nationalgeographic.com/geography-action/index.html.

(Sources: National Science Teachers Association, “Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Tsunamis”, http://www.enviroliteracy.org/nsfmod/NaturesFury.pdf, “A Rain Shadow”, http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp56/5602001.html, “Warm water helps create Great Lakes snowstorms.” University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 2008, US Department of State, “The Great Plains and Prairies”, http://countrystudies.us/united-states/geography-17.htm, Kidz World, “Dust Storms”, http://www.kidzworld.com/article/707-dust-storm-on-the-loose, “Cold air damming can bring ice to East.” http://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wcolddam/wcolddam.htm, “Warm water helps create Great Lakes snowstorms.” University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 2008., United States Search and Rescue Task Force, “Predicting Weather”, http://www.ussartf.org/predicting_weather.htm)

• 75 percent of the Earth is covered in water – oceans, lakes, rivers and streams.
• 25 percent is dry land area, but half of that is desert, swamp, polar and mountainous regions where conditions are too hot, too cold or too high in elevation to be productive.
• Of the remaining area (about 12 percent), nine percent is too flood-prone, too poor-quality or too hot for food production. The remaining three percent represents the area of Earth developed by humans. Just a small fraction of this area is made up of soil that we depend on for food and other uses.

Viewer Tip: Scientists estimate that we are losing soils 10 to 40 times faster than they can be replaced – 60 percent of soils are washed into our rivers, streams and lakes where they can decrease channel depth, increase potential for flooding and smother aquatic wildlife habitat. You can help control erosion at home by using mulch to cover garden beds and other areas of exposed soil. Planting ground-cover plants or small shrubs will also help stabilize soil.

(Sources: Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Division of Agriculture Sciences and Natural Resources, in cooperation with Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry and Oklahoma Department of Education. “Ag in the Classroom: How Much Soil is there?” https://www.soils.org/files/about-soils/earth-science-week-2007.pdf; Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. “Dig It! The Secrets of Soil.” http://forces.si.edu/soils/index.html; EPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds. “Watershed Tips.” epa.gov/owow)

Viewer Tip: The “rag” in ragweed comes from the ragged edge of the leaves found on these inconspicuous green plants.  Common ragweed grows up to three feet tall and has muted green flower stalks with white or green blooms.  As with other ragweeds, these plants use wind to disperse their pollen – to our sneezing chagrin.  Tall goldenrod uses insects to transfer pollen and can grow as tall as common ragweed.  Goldenrod’s showier yellow flowers appear while hay fever is at its peak, so it’s easy to be confused.  Don’t pull it up, though, as it provides nectar for Painted Lady and other butterfly species.  Ragweeds also are butterfly hosts and they may be so widespread that clearing your yard won’t solve the problem.

This tip is provided by the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. For more information, visit www.wildflower.org.

Viewer Tip: This is the perfect time to make a family disaster plan. NOAA’s National Hurricane Center offers these tips for creating your family disaster plan:

• Discuss the types of hazards that could affect your home and check your insurance coverage. Many home insurance policies do not cover flood damage.
• Learn evacuation routes for your community and choose a meeting place for family members. Designate an out-of-state friend or family member as a point of contact for all family members in case you are separated.
• Choose a safe room in your home in case you have to shelter in place. Put together a disaster supply kit. For a list of items to include in your kit, visit www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/prepare/supply_kit.shtml.
• Make a plan for pets in the event of evacuation. Most shelters will not allow pets.
• Have a NOAA Weather Radio handy to listen for weather information and warnings.

Learn more about National Hurricane Preparedness Week at www.nhc.noaa.gov/outreach/prepared_week.shtml.

• Higher temperatures promote chemical reactions, such as the formation of ground-level ozone and particle pollution.
• Winds become lighter when pressure builds. Light or no wind allows air pollutants to build up. Still conditions also provide a better environment for chemical reactions to occur.
• Dry air does not move as much as moist air, allowing pollutants to build up. Days with high ozone pollution levels often occur when humidity is low.  However, on humid days, poor visibility occurs when small particles in the air absorb moisture and swell, reducing visibility.
• Sinking air in high pressure systems prevents the air from cooling and forming clouds. This creates sunny days – a key ingredient in the formation of ozone is sunlight.
• Inversions, when cooler air is trapped near the ground by a layer of warmer air above, can trap pollution near the Earth’s surface. This can lead to high levels of ozone and particle pollution.

Viewer Tip: People with heart and lung diseases or asthma, children and older adults can be especially at-risk for health problems related to air pollution, and extremely poor air quality can affect everyone. Stay healthy and reduce your exposure by watching air quality reports from your local media or checking www.airnow.gov.  When conditions reach “Code Orange” or higher, consider rescheduling sports games and other strenuous outdoor activities for another day. If you do go outside, aim for early morning or evening hours, when air pollution levels are likely to be lower.

(Sources: US EPA. “What Affects My Air Quality?” http://www.epa.gov/airnow/airaware/day2-detail.html; www.airnow.gov)

Viewer tip:  In general, it is better to plant a smaller tree than a larger tree, as they are more vigorous and will often “catch up” in size with a larger tree over the years.  Smaller trees also are cheaper, easier to plant and more likely to have healthier roots from less time spent in a pot. The Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center suggests that you consider a larger tree if your neighborhood has rules that require it or you need the immediate impact for shade before selling a home or for other reasons. Fall and winter are ideal for planting trees in the southern United States. Consider adding some compost to the hole, which creates warmth as it decomposes.

• For an illustration and video about locating trees properly, go to: http://texastreeplanting.tamu.edu/PlantAroundHouse.html
• To view trees and shrubs to use under utility lines in Texas and some other states, go to: http://www.wildflower.org/collections/collection.php?collection=TWC_22
• For a list of small trees to consider in the Houston area, go to: http://www.wildflower.org/collections/collection.php?collection=gchouston

This information is provided by The Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Learn more at www.wildflower.org.

Viewer Tip: Put litter in its place with these simple tips:

• Carry a litter bag in your car for trash items.
• Make sure trash cans have tight-fitting lids to avoid blow-away trash.
• If you can’t find a trash can where you are, pack your waste with you and throw it away at home.

Learn more about litter in Texas at www.dontmesswithtexas.org.

Seasons: Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter

(Sources: Stadia, Texas Department of Transportation and Environmedia Social Marketing. “2009 LItter Attitudes and Behavior Survey Executive Summary.” http://dontmesswithtexas.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/TxDOT_2009_LA&BExecSummary.pdf; Keep America Beautiful. “Tips for Preventing Litter in Your Community.” http://www.kab.org/site/DocServer/kidsLitter.pdf?docID=462)

Viewer Tip: You can protect your home and property from wind damage with these simple tips:

• Bring backyard items, like patio furniture, garbage cans and children’s toys, inside when high winds are in the forecast.
• Keep trees and shrubs trimmed. Remove dead, diseased or damaged branches.
• If you live an in area that frequently experiences high winds, consider replacing rock and gravel landscaping with shredded materials, like wood mulch.

Find more tips for protecting your property from wind damage at the Institute for Business and Home Safety’s DisasterSafety.org: www.disastersafety.org/main.asp?id=1187

Download image in high resolution (1280×720)

(Source: Institute for Business and Home Safety. “High Winds: Surroundings – Protect Your Yard.” http://www.disastersafety.org/projects/?id=1901&category=1187)

Soaring birds like hawks, osprey and eagles depend heavily on wind for migration. According to scientists, the second day after a cold front passage is the best time to observe hawk migration in the fall, when there are northwest to west winds that produce updrafts. Soaring birds glide along updrafts, which conserves energy. If soaring birds flapped their wings constantly during migration, they would exhaust their fat stores long before reaching their destination.

Viewer Tip: In the Northwestern United States and Northern California, you may notice hawks and waterfowl drop into your yard to rest and find food at this time of year.  You can encourage both migrant and resident birds, like evening grosbeaks and cedar waxwings, to visit your yard by offering different types of foods – seed, nuts, berries or suet – and different kinds of feeders.

If you enjoy watching the birds in your yard, consider sharing your observations. Join the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Project Feeder Watch to help scientists track the movement and distribution of birds.  It’s as simple as periodically counting the bird species you see in your yard from November through April.  Visit http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw to sign up for 2010-2011 season.

Season: Fall

(Sources: Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman.  1998.  Migration of birds. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.  Circular 16.  Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Home Page. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/migratio/migratio.htm; eNature.com, “Regional Birder,” http://www.enature.com/birding/index.asp; National Audubon Society. “Audubon At Home: An Invitation to a Healthy Yard.” http://www.audubonathome.org/yard/index.html)

Soaring birds like hawks, osprey and eagles depend heavily on wind for migration. According to scientists, the second day after a cold front passage is the best time to observe hawk migration in the fall, when there are northwest to west winds that produce updrafts. Soaring birds glide along updrafts, which conserves energy. If soaring birds flapped their wings constantly during migration, they would exhaust their fat stores long before reaching their destination.

Viewer Tip: In the Rocky Mountains, you may notice hawks drop into your yard to rest and find food at this time of year.  You can encourage both migrant and resident birds, like rosy finches and cedar waxwings, to visit your yard by offering different types of foods – seed, nuts, berries or suet – and different kinds of feeders.

If you enjoy watching the birds in your yard, consider sharing your observations. Join the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Project Feeder Watch to help scientists track the movement and distribution of birds.  It’s as simple as periodically counting the bird species you see in your yard from November through April.  Visit http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw to sign up for 2010-2011 season.

Season: Fall

(Sources: Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman.  1998.  Migration of birds. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.  Circular 16.  Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Home Page. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/migratio/migratio.htm; eNature.com, “Regional Birder,” http://www.enature.com/birding/index.asp; National Audubon Society. “Audubon At Home: An Invitation to a Healthy Yard.” http://www.audubonathome.org/yard/index.html)

Soaring birds like hawks, osprey and eagles depend heavily on wind for migration. According to scientists, the second day after a cold front passage is the best time to observe hawk migration in the fall, when there are northwest to west winds that produce updrafts. Soaring birds glide along updrafts, which conserves energy. If soaring birds flapped their wings constantly during migration, they would exhaust their fat stores long before reaching their destination.

Viewer Tip: Some fall migrants spend their winters in the Southwestern United States and Texas, including warbler species. At this time of year, you may begin spotting yellow-rumped warblers at feeders and bird baths. You can encourage both migrant and resident birds to visit your yard by offering different types of foods – seed, nuts, berries or suet – and different kinds of feeders.

If you enjoy watching the birds in your yard, consider sharing your observations. Join the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Project Feeder Watch to help scientists track the movement and distribution of birds.  It’s as simple as periodically counting the bird species you see in your yard from November through April.  Visit http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw to sign up for 2010-2011 season.

Season: Fall

(Sources: Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman.  1998.  Migration of birds. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.  Circular 16.  Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Home Page. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/migratio/migratio.htm; eNature.com, “Regional Birder,” http://www.enature.com/birding/index.asp; National Audubon Society. “Audubon At Home: An Invitation to a Healthy Yard.” http://www.audubonathome.org/yard/index.html)

Soaring birds like hawks, osprey and eagles depend heavily on wind for migration. According to scientists, the second day after a cold front passage is the best time to observe hawk migration in the fall, when there are northwest to west winds that produce updrafts. Soaring birds glide along updrafts, which conserves energy. If soaring birds flapped their wings constantly during migration, they would exhaust their fat stores long before reaching their destination.

Viewer Tip: In the Great Plains, you may notice hawks and waterfowl drop into your yard to rest and find food at this time of year. You’ll also begin to see winter residents, like the dark-eyed junco and American tree sparrow. You can encourage both migrant and resident birds to visit your yard by offering different types of foods – seed, nuts, berries or suet – and different kinds of feeders.

If you enjoy watching the birds in your yard, consider sharing your observations. Join the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Project Feeder Watch to help scientists track the movement and distribution of birds.  It’s as simple as periodically counting the bird species you see in your yard from November through April.  Visit http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw to sign up for 2010-2011 season.

Season: Fall

(Sources: Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman.  1998.  Migration of birds. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.  Circular 16.  Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Home Page. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/migratio/migratio.htm; eNature.com, “Regional Birder,” http://www.enature.com/birding/index.asp; National Audubon Society. “Audubon At Home: An Invitation to a Healthy Yard.” http://www.audubonathome.org/yard/index.html)

Soaring birds like hawks, osprey and eagles depend heavily on wind for migration. According to scientists, the second day after a cold front passage is the best time to observe hawk migration in the fall, when there are northwest to west winds that produce updrafts. Soaring birds glide along updrafts, which conserves energy. If soaring birds flapped their wings constantly during migration, they would exhaust their fat stores long before reaching their destination.

Viewer Tip: In the Midwest, you may notice hawks and waterfowl drop into your yard to rest and find food at this time of year. You can encourage both migrant and resident birds, like the northern cardinal and cedar waxwing, to visit your yard by offering different types of foods – seed, nuts, berries or suet – and different kinds of feeders.

If you enjoy watching the birds in your yard, consider sharing your observations. Join the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Project Feeder Watch to help scientists track the movement and distribution of birds.  It’s as simple as periodically counting the bird species you see in your yard from November through April.  Visit http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw to sign up for 2010-2011 season.

Season: Fall

(Sources: Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman. 1998. Migration of birds. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Circular 16. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Home Page. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/migratio/migratio.htm; eNature.com, “Regional Birder,” http://www.enature.com/birding/index.asp; National Audubon Society. “Audubon At Home: An Invitation to a Healthy Yard.” http://www.audubonathome.org/yard/index.html)

Soaring birds like hawks, osprey and eagles depend heavily on wind for migration. According to scientists, the second day after a cold front passage is the best time to observe hawk migration in the fall, when there are northwest to west winds that produce updrafts. Soaring birds glide along updrafts, which conserves energy. If soaring birds flapped their wings constantly during migration, they would exhaust their fat stores long before reaching their destination.

Viewer Tip: In the Northeastern United States, you may notice hawks and waterfowl drop into your yard to rest and find food at this time of year. You’ll also begin to see winter residents, like the dark-eyed junco.  You can encourage both migrant and resident birds to visit your yard by offering different types of foods – seed, nuts, berries or suet – and different kinds of feeders.

If you enjoy watching the birds in your yard, consider sharing your observations. Join the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Project Feeder Watch to help scientists track the movement and distribution of birds.  It’s as simple as periodically counting the bird species you see in your yard from November through April.  Visit http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw to sign up for 2010-2011 season.

Season: Fall

(Sources: Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman. 1998. Migration of birds. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Circular 16. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Home Page. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/migratio/migratio.htm; eNature.com, “Regional Birder,” http://www.enature.com/birding/index.asp; National Audubon Society. “Audubon At Home: An Invitation to a Healthy Yard.” http://www.audubonathome.org/yard/index.html)

Soaring birds like hawks, osprey and eagles depend heavily on wind for migration. According to scientists, the second day after a cold front passage is the best time to observe hawk migration in the fall, when there are northwest to west winds that produce updrafts. Soaring birds glide along updrafts, which conserves energy. If soaring birds flapped their wings constantly during migration, they would exhaust their fat stores long before reaching their destination.

Viewer Tip: Some fall migrants spend their winters in the Southeastern United States, including warbler species. At this time of year , you may begin spotting pine, yellow-rumped and prairie warblers. You can encourage both migrant and resident birds to visit your yard by offering different types of foods – seed, nuts, berries or suet – and different kinds of feeders.

If you enjoy watching the birds in your yard, consider sharing your observations. Join the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s Project Feeder Watch to help scientists track the movement and distribution of birds.  It’s as simple as periodically counting the bird species you see in your yard from November through April.  Visit http://www.birds.cornell.edu/pfw to sign up for 2010-2011 season.

Season: Fall

(Sources: Lincoln, Frederick C., Steven R. Peterson, and John L. Zimmerman. 1998. Migration of birds. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Circular 16. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Home Page. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/migratio/migratio.htm; eNature.com, “Regional Birder,” http://www.enature.com/birding/index.asp; National Audubon Society. “Audubon At Home: An Invitation to a Healthy Yard.” http://www.audubonathome.org/yard/index.html)

Viewer Tip: You can prevent soil erosion at home with these tips.

• Plant shrubs and trees along the edge of your property to create a buffer between your home and a waterway. This will stabilize soils and filter pollutants from rain water.
• Minimize the amount of time soil is exposed during landscaping or construction activities.  Use silt fences and other containment measures to reduce erosion on landscaping and construction sites.
• Seed and mulch any bare soil in your yard. September and October are good months to seed home lawns.

Seasons: Spring, Summer, Fall

(Sources: Think Blue Maine, “Soil Erosion.” www.thinkbluemaine.org)

Viewer Tip: Prepare your property for high winds by making sure your home and belongings are secure.

• Bring lawn furniture, outdoor decorations, trash cans, potted and hanging plants, and any other items that might be picked up by wind inside.
• Secure your home by closing windows and doors.  Close hurricane shutters if you have them.
• Be prepared for power outages – have a flash light, water and non-perishable food on hand.
• If you live in a mobile home, consider moving to a more substantial shelter to stay safe.

Seasons: Summer, Fall

(Sources: American Red Cross. “Talking about Disaster: Guide for Standarad Messages.” Available from: www.redcross.org. National Weather Service, www.nws.noaa.gov)

Viewer Tip: Soil erosion on farmlands and related water quality impacts can be reduced with conservation management practices. No-till and grassed waterways (considered “Best Management Practices” for agriculture) can deliver a one-two punch in controlling soil erosion.  No-till is a method of growing crops that improves soil quality without disturbing the land through tillage.  Grassed waterways are natural or constructed channels that help trap sediments and pesticides and reduce the speed of water by providing a grass cushion.

Learn more about agricultural Best Management Practices from the USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Service:  www.nrcs.usda.gov

Seasons: Spring, Summer, Fall

(Sources: USDA-NRCS, www.nrcs.usda.gov; University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, http://www2.ca.uky.edu/)

Viewer Tip: There are many ways to reduce your exposure to mosquitoes. Emptying and removing any containers with standing water can prevent larvae from breeding; birdbath water should be changed every three to five days. Instead of using insecticidal spray to control mosquitoes, try creating a habitat garden that supports the predators of mosquitoes for natural control. Simply introducing a flowing water garden as well as a diversity of native plants goes a long way to providing habitat.

This tip is provided by the Georgia Wildlife Federation. For more information, visit www.gwf.org.

Seasons: Spring, Summer

(Source: David Mizejewski & National Wildlife Federation, Attracting Birds, Butterflies, and Other Backyard Wildlife, NJ: Creative Homeowner, 2004.)

Viewer Tip:  Don’t let winter winds and drizzle keep you indoors.  Bundle up and take some regular walks on your nearest beach.  Take a walking stick if cobbles make footing less certain.  Over the course of the winter, watch the “storm sculptor” at work and get to know your beach and bluffs in a new way.

Season: Winter

This information is provided by Port Townsend Marine Science Center. Learn more at www.ptmsc.org.

(Sources: Washington Department of Ecology, Washington’s Coast: Storms www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/coast/storms/change.html and Puget Sound Beaches http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/pugetsound/beaches/gravel.html; University  of California San Diego, Earthguide, http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/coasts/beachprofile.html; John Turbeville, Oceanography, Mira Costa College, California  http://www.miracosta.edu/home/JTurbeville/profiling/Beach%20Processes.htm.)